$27.49 Buy It Now or Best Offer
free,30-Day Returns
Seller Store ancientgifts
(5343) 100.0%,
Location: Lummi Island, Washington
Ships to: US,
Item: 125012029487
Restocking Fee:No
Return shipping will be paid by:Buyer
All returns accepted:Returns Accepted
Item must be returned within:30 Days
Refund will be given as:Money back or replacement (buyer’s choice)
Book Title:Time-Life Great Ages of Man Cradle of Civilization
Topic:Ancient World,Cultural History,Regional History,World History
Format:Hardcover
Type:Illustrated Book
Publication Year:1967
Publisher:Time-Life Books
Genre:Art & Culture,Historical
Narrative Type:Nonfiction
Features:Illustrated
Author:Time-Life Editors
Book Series:Time Life Great Ages of Man
Language:English
Intended Audience:Ages 9-12,Young Adults,Adults
Series:Great Ages of Man
Subjects:History & Military
Length:283 pages
Dimensions:10¾ x 8¾ inches; 2 pounds
Time-Life Great Ages of Man Series – Cradle of Civilization. NOTE: We have 75,000 books in our library, almost 10,000 different titles. Odds are we have other copies of this same title in varying conditions, some less expensive, some better condition. We might also have different editions as well (some paperback, some hardcover, oftentimes international editions). If you don’t see what you want, please contact us and ask. We’re happy to send you a summary of the differing conditions and prices we may have for the same title. PLEASE SEE IMAGES BELOW FOR JACKET DESCRIPTION(S) AND FOR PAGES OF PICTURES FROM INSIDE OF BOOK. CONDITION: Hardcover with quarter-cloth pictorial covers. Light shelf wear, otherwise in Very Good to Like New condition. Seemingly never read, at worst flipped through a few times. Pages are pristine; clean, unmarked, unmutilated, tightly bound. Satisfaction unconditionally guaranteed. In stock, ready to ship. No disappointments, no excuses. PROMPT SHIPPING! HEAVILY PADDED, DAMAGE-FREE PACKAGING! DESCRIPTION: Hardcover: 183 pages. Publisher: Time-Life Books Inc.; (1969). Size: 10¾ x 8¾ inches; 2 pounds. The “Great Ages of Man” series was released in the mid-1960’s. Each volume undertakes to describe the major events that happened in one specific time period (or “age”) in the development of mankind’s civilization(s). The volumes are richly illustrated, and designed as an introduction to the time frame covered. Especially compelling are the artists interpretations or recreations of what various ancient civilizations would have looked like – their architecture, homes, monuments, cities, daily life, jewelry, food, family life, dwellings, occupations, etc. As just one instance, the ruins of Babylon and Ur, Athens and Rome hint at the incredible richness of those fabled cities. The artist’s recreations in this series are simply mind-numbing. This is as close as you can be to actually having been there. Equally noteworthy are the photographic collections of artifacts and relics attributed to the specific age, really exceptional. The entire series is truly a magnificent introduction to the history of the era. If you could have just one book (or series of books) to introduce the history of humankind, this would have to be it. The overviews are concise and well-written. Together with the illustration and pictures they impart a wonderful mental and emotional “picture” of what life must have been like in various civilizations and at various times. Done in a style so wonderfully characteristic of Time-Life’s publications, these are over-sized “coffee table” type books full of impressive imagery. The pictures of the world’s greatest art and architecture alone are worth the cost of these books. But don’t get the impression that these volumes are “fluff”. While a particular volume might not quite take the place as a university degree, the material is well-written, informative, and immensely intellectually gratifying, overview though it might be. Some of the subject material included is enumerated below so as to give you an idea of the rich content: INTRODUCTION: An Atlas: The Sites and Cities of the Cradle of Civilization. Geographical and Political Features: the Mediterranean Sea, Cyprus, Anatolia, Taurus Mountains, Amanus Mountains, Syria, Syrian Desert, Palestine, the Dead Sea, Arabian Desert, Babylonia, Armenia, Lake Urmia, Caspian Sea, Elburz Mountains, Zagros Mountains, Elam, Persian Gulf, Akkad, Sumer, Assyria, Euphrates River, Tigris River, Khabur River, Karun River. Cities and Sites: Carchemish, Ugarit, Byblos, Jericho, Mari, Tell Halaf, Tell Brak, Dur-Sharrukin, Galah, Nineveh, Tell Hassuna, Assur, Jarmo, Karim Shahir, Eshnunna, Tell Harmal, Tell Uqair, Khafaje, Eshnunna, Jemdet Nasr, Kish, Babylon, Nippur, Susa, Isin, LagashLarsa, Erech, Ur, Eridu, Tell Al-Ubaid. CHAPTER ONE: The Land Between the Rivers. A Votive Figure from Nippur 2800BC. Picture Essay: Unearthing the Past (A Bastion of Civilization: The Sumerian City of Nippur. The Modern Archaeological Team: An Army of Expert Diggers. Uncovering and Charting the Strata of History: Deepening a Trench, Labeling Layers, Exposing Pavement. Preserving a Find: Gathering to See a Discovery, A Latex Mold. Pottery: “ABC” of Archaeology; water jugs, storage vases, drinking vessels, and dishes. New Techniques.). CHAPTER TWO: Man’s First Cities. Sargon the Great (Akkadian Dynasty): A Ruler’s Portrait (Sumer and Mesopotamia). A Variety of Building Bricks in Mesopotamia. Herringbone Patterns of Sumerian Loaf-Shaped Bricks. A Fortress-Like Dwelling in Northern Mesopotamia. Irrigating Mesopotamian Fields with Sweeps. Field Patterns in Nippur. The Realms of Sumer and Akkad: Clustered Cities Along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (Elamites, Gutians, Amorites. Picture Essay: The People of Sumer (The Standard of Ur: Peoples from All Walks of Life 2500BC. Prosperity in Mesopotamia: A Land of Farmers. A Sumerian Agricultural Manual (the World’s Oldest). A Wealth of Trade: Merchant Caravans to and From Asia Minor and Iran. The Luxury and Power of Court: The Sumerian State; King and the Bureaucrats of Court. Soldiers of the King: A Specialized Class of Professional Soldiers; Formations of Armed Infantrymen and Wheeled Charioteers.). CHAPTER THREE: The Sweep of Empire. A Winged Deity in the Palace of Assyrian King Assurnasirpal II. Prominent Near East Cultures: Egyptian, Elamite, Sumerian, Akkadian, Mitanni, Hurrians, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Assyrians, Hittites, Hebrews, Persians, Kassires. Significant Empires: The Babylonian Empire (Hammurabi’s Realm 18th Century BC); Near Eastern Disunity (15th Century B.C. – Hittite, Mitanni, Kassite, and Egyptian Empires); The Assyrian Empire (Assurbanipal’s Real – 7th Century B.C.); The Neo-Babylonian Empire (Nebuchadrezzar’s Realm – 6th Century B.C.). Picture Essay: A Monarch’s Mighty Deeds (Assyrian Assurbanipal’s Horse-Mounted Hunts in Nineveh. Assurbanipal’s Lion Hunt. A Successful Hunt:: Thanking the Gods – Assurbanipal as High Priest. The Goddess Ishtar’s Bow. Assyria’s Crack Infantry Troops. War: Assurbanipal’s Assyria versus Shamashshumukin’s Babylon and Allies (Uaite, King of Arabia and Teumman, King of the Iranian Elamites) . The Sack of the Elamite Capital City Hamanu.. A Victory Gala: King Assurbanipal and Queen Assursharrat.). CHAPTER FOUR: The Bustling People. Stylized Portraits: Vot5ive Statuettes of Mesopotamians (Bearded Men, a Shaven Priest, a Woman). A 4,000 Year Old Mesopotamian Townhouse Floorplan. Sumerian Statuettes and Women’s Headdress Styles. Commerce and Mesopotamia’s Sailing Cargo Galleys. Picture Essay: A Timeless Life in the Marshes (Dawn on a Marsh Lagoon: Paddling a Canoe. A World on Water: Artificial Islands of Mud and Reed. An Ancient Herd of Buffalo in an Ancient Sumerian Reed Barn. A Lasting Legacy of Reed Architecture., An Ancient Façade: A Sumerian Reed House. A Modern Pre-Fabricated Reed House.. The Daily Tasks of Survival: Grinding Flour, Waterproofing Canoes, Winnowing Rice. An Age-Old Refuge Among the Reeds: Poling an Ancient Reed Canoe. Fishing with Spears. Iraq at the End of the Work Day.). CHAPTER FIVE: Faith, Myths and Rites. Sumerian Ur Grave Goods: A Golden Goat in a Thicket/Flowering Tree: Gold, Shell, and Lapis Lazuli. The Pantheon: Sun God Utu; Mother Earth Goddess Ninhursag; Lord of Water and Wisdom Enki; Goddess of Love and War Inanna. A Syrian “Eye Idol”: An All-Seeing Deity? Picture Essay: Tales of Gods and Heroes (Gilgamesh: King of Erech and His Quest for Immortality. The Creation of the Universe: Sumerian Legends of Enlil, the God of Air and Storms. The Birth of Man and Beast: The Sumerian Legend of the Anunaki, the Divine Children of the Heaven God “An”. The Perilous Adventures of an Ancient Love Goddess Inanna and Ereshkigal, the Goddess of Darkness, Gloom and Death. The Strange Odyssey of a Mighty King: The Adventures of Endiku and Gilgamesh (Against Humumba, Fire-Breathing Guardian and the Cedar Forest ; the “Bull of Heaven, the Scorpion People, and Utnapishtim, the Immortal). The Mesopotamian Ancestors of Noah and Job: Utnapishtim and the Gods “Enlil” and “Ea”). CHAPTER SIX: The Literate Man. The Seated Scribe: Gudea, Ruler of Lagash, a Patron of Letters. The Rock of Behistun, Ancient “Place of the Gods” and a Message from the Past. Translator of Cuneiform: Henry Rawlinson, the Key to Mesopotamian History. A Not-So-Proper Schoolmaster: Sumer’s Teacher-Scribes. Proverbs and the Wisdom of Mesopotamia. Picture Essay: How Writing Began (The Assyrian Scribes of Nimrud. Cuneiform: Shaping the Written Symbol. From Pictograph into Script. The Many Uses of Cuneiform: Recipes, Commercial Records, Maps, Dedications, and Prayers from the Ancient Past. Darius the Great: A King’s Words at Behistun, Iran.). CHAPTER SEVEN: The Beautiful, the Practical. A Decorative Plaque of Mythological Figures and Animals from Ur. The Temple of Marduk: Babylon’s Monumental Shrine. Picture Essay: A City’s Massive Splendor (The Glazed-Brick Walls of Babylon: A Snarling Lion’s Head. Nebuchadrezzar and Babylon’s Might Walls. A Gateway of the Gods: Babylon’s Main Entrance, the Ishtar Gate. An Architecture to Defy the Sun: Insulation Against the Heat. Nebuchadrezzar’s Throne Rome. A Patrician’s Home. A Tower to Rival Heaven: The Tower of Babel, the Temple of Marduk.). CHAPTER EIGHT: Mesopotamia’s Radiant Light. The Tower of Babel: An Enduring Symbol. An Archetypal Ancient Wheel of Susa and Kish. A Copper Bust of a Serene King of Elam. Picture Essay: Pillars of Civilization (A Sumerian Masterpiece: An Elegant Marble Bust. The Written Word From Pictographs to Cuneiform to Alphabetical Writing. The Wheel: From Solid Wooden Wheels of Fourth Millennia Sumer, to Second Millennia Spoke Wheels of Ancient Egyptian Charioteers, to Medieval Wheels of Swiveling Axles, to the Industrial Revolution. The Concept of Kings: The Transition from Elected Monarchs to Hereditary Kingship. A Society of Laws: The Code of Babylon’s King Hammurabi.). A Chronology: Early Farming Communities; Pre-Sumerians; Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians. How the Archaeologist Dates Sites and Findings: Stratigraphy; Carbon 14 Dating; An Analysis of Pottery. ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND: History of Mesopotamia: The oldest known communities in Mesopotamia are thought to date from 9,000 B.C., and include the ancient city of Babylon. Several civilizations flourished in the fertile area created as the Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow south out of Turkey. The river valleys and plains of Mesopotamia, often referred to as the “fertile crescent”, lay between the two rivers, which are about 250 miles apart from one another. The ancient Sumerians and Babylonians were inhabitants of Mesopotamia, located in a region that included parts of what is now eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and most of Iraq, lay between two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. According to the Bible, Abraham came from this area. The area is commonly referred to as “the fertile crescent” by historians and archaeologists. By 4,000 B.C. large cities had grown up in the region. Considered one of the cradles of civilization, the region is referred to frequently in The Bible, and is mentioned as the birthplace of Abraham. The region produced the first written records, as well as the wheel. The region was conquered by the Akkadians in the 24th century B.C. who ruled for about two centuries. The ancient city of Ur controlled the region for the next two centuries until about 2,000 B.C. Mesopotamia was not again united until about 1750 B.C., then the Kingdom of Babylon arose and reigned supreme in the area for about one and one-half centuries. The Babylonians in turn were conquered by Hittites from Turkey in about 1595 B.C. The longest control of the area was by the ancient Assyrians, who ruled the area from about 1350 B.C. through about 600 B.C. After a brief interlude of chaos, the Persians conquered the area and held it for three centuries until Persian and all of its territories were conquered by Alexander the Great in the last 4th century B.C. However the Greeks only held the region for about one century, before it again fell to the Persians. The Persians and Romans wrestled over the area for a number of centuries. Finally in the 7th century A.D. the area of Mesopotamia fell to the Islamic Empire [AncientGifts]. Mesopotamia, Land Between the Rivers: The term “Mesopotamia” is from the Greek, meaning ‘between two rivers’. Mesopotamia was a region in the ancient world located in the eastern Mediterranean. It was bounded in the northeast by the Zagros Mountains and in the southeast by the Arabian Plateau. The region corresponds to the greatest degree to today’s Iraq, but also includes parts of modern-day Iran, Syria and Turkey. The ‘two rivers’ of the name referred to the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers and the land was known as ‘Al-Jazirah’ (the island) by the Arabs. The classical term for the region was the “Fertile Crescent” as coined by Egyptologist J.H. Breasted. Unlike the more unified civilizations of Egypt or Greece, Mesopotamia was a collection of varied cultures. Their only real bonds were their script, their gods, and their attitude toward women. The social customs, laws, and even language of Akkad, for example, cannot be assumed to correspond to those of Babylon. It does seem however, that the rights of women, the importance of literacy, and the pantheon of the gods were indeed shared throughout the region. However even the gods had different names in various regions and periods. As a result of this Mesopotamia should be more properly understood as a region that produced multiple empires and civilizations rather than any single civilization. Even so Mesopotamia is known as the “cradle of civilization” primarily because of two developments that occurred there in the region of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. First was the rise of the city as we recognize that entity today. Second was the invention of writing. It is important to note however that writing is also known to have developed in Egypt, in the Indus Valley, in China, and to have taken form independently in Mesoamerica. The invention of the wheel is also credited to the Mesopotamians. In 1922 the archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley discovered at the site of the ancient city of Ur, “the remains of two four-wheeled wagons, the oldest wheeled vehicles in history ever found, along with their leather tires”. Other important developments or inventions credited to the Mesopotamians include, but are by no means limited to, domestication of animals, agriculture, common tools, sophisticated weaponry and warfare, the chariot, wine, beer, demarcation of time into hours, minutes, and seconds, religious rites, sails for sailboats, and irrigation. In fact Orientalist Samuel Noah Kramer has listed 39 `firsts’ in human civilization that originated in Sumer. Archaeological excavations starting in the 1840s have revealed human settlements dating back to 10,000 BC in Mesopotamia. The settlements indicate that the fertile conditions of the land between two rivers allowed an ancient hunter-gatherer people to settle in the land, domesticate animals, and turn their attention to agriculture. Trade soon followed, and with prosperity came urbanization and the birth of the city. It is generally thought that writing was invented due to trade, out of the necessity for long-distance communication, and for keeping more careful track of accounts. Mesopotamia was known in antiquity as a seat of learning. Historians believe that “Thales of Miletus”, known as the ‘first philosopher’, studied there around 585BC. As the Babylonians believed that water was the ‘first principle’ from which all else flowed, and as Thales is famous for that very claim, it seems probable he studied in the region. Intellectual pursuits were highly valued across Mesopotamia. Schools were devoted primarily to the priestly class. Historical accounts state that schools were as numerous as temples. The schools taught reading, writing, religion, law, medicine, and astrology. There were over 1,000 deities in the pantheon of the gods of the Mesopotamian cultures. There were as well many stories concerning the gods. Principal amongst them was the creation myth, the “Enuma Elish”. It is generally accepted that biblical tales such as the Fall of Man and the Flood of Noah, among many others, originated in Mesopotamian myth. These tales first appear in Mesopotamian works such as “The Myth of Adapa” and the “Epic of Gilgamesh”, and were adopted by and adapted to Christianity. The “Epic of Gilgamesh” is the oldest written story (known) to the modern world. The Mesopotamians believed that they were co-workers with the gods and that the land was infused with spirits and demons. The beginning of the world they believed was a victory by the gods over the forces of chaos. However even though the gods had won, this did not mean chaos could not come again. Through daily rituals, attention to the deities, proper funeral practices, and simple civic duty, the people of Mesopotamia felt they helped maintain balance in the world. By so doing they kept the forces of chaos and destruction at bay. Along with expectations that one would honor one’s elders and treat people with respect, the citizens of the land were also to honor the gods through the jobs they performed every day. Men and women both worked. Because ancient Mesopotamia was fundamentally an agrarian society the principal occupations were growing crops and raising livestock. Other occupations included those of the scribe, the healer, artisan, weaver, potter, shoemaker, fisherman, teacher, and priest or priestess. As one historian wrote, “…At the head of society were the kings and priests served by the populous staff of palace and temple. With the institution of standing armies and the spread of imperialism, military officers and professional soldiers took their place in Mesopotamia’s expanding and diverse workforce…” Women enjoyed nearly equal rights and could own land, file for divorce, own their own businesses, and make contracts in trade. The early brewers of beer and wine, as well as the healers in the community, were initially women. It seems these trades were later taken over by men when it became apparent they were lucrative occupations. Whatever work one did however was never considered simply a `job’. Rather it was considered to be one’s contribution to the community. By extension, it was also one’s contribution to the gods’ efforts in keeping the world at peace and in harmony. The temple at the center of every city was often on a raised platform. The temple symbolized the importance of the city’s patron deity. That deity would also be worshipped by whatever communities the city presided over. Mesopotamia gave birth to the world’s first cities which were largely built of sun-dried brick. In the words of one historian, “…the domestic architecture of Mesopotamia grew out of the soil upon which it stood. Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia, especially in the south, was barren of stone that could be quarried for construction…” The land was equally devoid of trees for timber, so the people, “…turned to other natural resources that lay abundantly at hand: the muddy clay of its riverbanks and the rushes and reeds that grew in their marshes. With them the Mesopotamians created the world’s first columns, arches, and roofed structures…” Simple homes were constructed from bundles of reeds lashed together and inserted in the ground. More complex homes were built of sun-dried clay brick. This technology was later adopted by the ancient Egyptians. Cities and temple complexes, with their famous ziggurats were all built using oven-baked bricks of clay which were then painted. Ziggurats were the step-pyramid structures commonplace within the region. Prior to the concept of a king the priestly rulers are believed to have dictated the law according to religious precepts. The gods were thought to be present in the planning and execution of any building project. Very specific prayers were recited in a set order to the proper deity. The prayers were considered of utmost importance in the success of the project and the prosperity of the occupants of the home. The vital role of the gods in the lives of the people remained undiminished. This was true regardless of which kingdom or empire held sway across Mesopotamia, in whatever historical period. This reverence for the divine characterized the lives of both the field worker and the king. As one historian recorded, “…The precariousness of existence in southern Mesopotamia led to a highly developed sense of religion. Cult centers such as Eridu, dating back to 5000 BC, served as important centers of pilgrimage and devotion even before the rise of Sumer. Many of the most important Mesopotamian cities emerged in areas surrounding the pre-Sumerian cult centers, thus reinforcing the close relationship between religion and government…” The role of the king was established at some point after 3600 BC. Unlike the priest-rulers who came before, the king dealt directly with the people and made his will clear through laws of his own devising. Prior to the concept of a king, the priestly rulers are believed to have dictated the law according to religious precepts and received divine messages through signs and omens. For the king it was still important that he still honor and placate the gods. However the king was considered a powerful enough representative of those gods to be able to speak their will through his own dictates, using his own voice. This is most clearly seen in the famous laws of Hammurabi of Babylon, who ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC. A ruler claiming direct contact with the gods was quite common throughout Mesopotamian history. It was perhaps most prominently on display during the 2261 to 2224 BC reign of the Akkadian king Naram-Sin. This king went so far as to proclaim himself a god incarnate. In general the king was responsible for the welfare of his people. A good king who ruled in accordance with divine will, was recognized by the prosperity of the region he reigned over. However even very efficient rulers such as Sargon of Akkad who reigned from 2334 to 2279 BC encountered difficulties. Sargon still had to deal with perpetual uprisings and revolts by factions, or whole regions, contesting his legitimacy. Mesopotamia was a vast with many different cultures and ethnicities within its borders. A single ruler attempting to enforce the laws of a central government would invariably be met with resistance from some quarter. The history of the region, and the development of the civilizations which flourished there is most easily understood by dividing it into periods. First the “Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age”, also known as the Stone Age. This was up to around 10,000 BC, though there is evidence of scattered agriculture and urbanization prior to that time. There is archaeological confirmation of crude settlements and early signs of warfare between tribes. The friction was most likely over fertile land for crops and fields for grazing livestock. Animal husbandry was increasingly practiced during this time with a shift from a hunter-gatherer culture to an agrarian one. One historian noted of the time, “…There was not a sudden change from hunting-gathering to farming, but rather a slow process during which people increased their reliance on resources they managed directly, but still supplemented their diets by hunting wild animals. Agriculture enabled an increase in continuous settlement by people…” As more settlements grew, architectural developments slowly became more sophisticated in the construction of permanent dwellings. The second period is known as the “Pottery Neolithic Age” and was centered around 7,000 BC. In this period there was a widespread use of tools and clay pots. A distinct, specific culture begins to emerge in the Fertile Crescent. As one scholar wrote, “…during this era, the only advanced technology was literally ‘cutting edge’” as stone tools and weapons became more sophisticated…the Neolithic economy was primarily based on food production through farming and animal husbandry…” This period in time witnessed urban populations which were much more settled. This was in contrast to the Stone Age in which communities were more mobile and migratory. Architectural advancements naturally followed in the wake of permanent settlements as did developments in the manufacture of ceramics and stone tools. The next period is known as the “Copper Age”, and ran from approximately 5900 BC through 3200 BC. It is also known as the “Chalcolithic Period” owing to the transition from stone tools and weapons to ones made of copper. This era includes the so-called “Ubaid Period” of about 5000 to 4100 BC. This period was named for Tell al-`Ubaid. This is the location in Iraq where the greatest number ever of ancient artifacts were found from the period during which the first temples in Mesopotamia were built. Unwalled villages developed from sporadic settlements of single dwellings. These villages then gave rise to process during the Uruk Period from about 4100 through 2900 BC when cities rose. The urbanization process was most notable in the region of Sumer, including Eridu, Uruk, Ur, Kish, Nuzi, Lagash, Nippur, and Ngirsu, and in Elam with its city of Susa. The earliest city is often cited as Uruk, although Eridu and Ur have also been suggested by many historians. One historians wrote, “…Mesopotamia was the most densely urbanized region in the ancient world, and the cities which grew up along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, as well as those founded further away, established systems of trade which resulted in great prosperity…” This period saw the invention of the wheel around 3500 BC and a system of writing around 3000 BC. Both of these innovations are attributable to the Sumerians. The same time period witnessed the establishment of kingships to replace priestly rule. An account of the first recorded war in the world between the kingdoms of Sumer and Elam was preserved in writing for posterity. It occurred around 2700 BC, and Sumer was the victor. The following period is known as the “Early Bronze Age” which lasted from about 3000 through 2119 BC. During this period bronze supplanted copper as the material from which tools and weapons were made. The Early Bronze Age included the “Early Dynastic Period”, which lasted from about 2900 through 2334 BC. Within this period all of the advances of the Uruk Period were developed. Cities and government in general stabilized. Increased prosperity in the region gave rise to ornate temples and statuary, sophisticated pottery and figurines. This period also witness the development of toys for children, including dolls for girls and wheeled carts for boys. As well the use of personal seals became widesporead. Known as “cylinder seals” the imprint they created denoted ownership of property stood for an individual’s signature. Cylinder seals would be comparable to one’s modern-day identification card or driver’s license. In fact the loss or theft of one’s seal would have been every bit as significant as modern-day identity theft or losing one’s credit cards. The rise of the city-state laid the foundation for economic and political stability which would eventually lead to the rise of the Akkadian Empire during the time period between 2334 and 2218 BC. This period gave rise to the rapid growth of the cities of Akkad and Mari, two of the most prosperous urban centers of the time. The cultural stability necessary for the creation of art in the region resulted in more intricate designs in architecture and sculpture. It also fostered a number of specific and momentous inventions including the plow, the wheel, the chariot, the sailboat, and as described above, the cylinder-seal. The cylinder seal became the single most distinctive art form of ancient Mesopotamia. The cylinder seal also evolved into a pervasive demonstration of the importance of property ownership and business in the country’s daily life. During the pertiod the Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great was the first multi-national realm in the world. Sargon’s daughter, Enheduanna, who lived from 2285 to 2250 BC, was the first author of literary works known by name. The library at Mari contained over 20,000 cuneiform tablets (books) and the palace there was considered one of the grandest in the region. The next period was the “Middle Bronze Age”, which lasted from 2119 to about 1700 BC. The period was noteworthy for the expansion of two kingdoms. The first was the Assyrian Kingdoms, including the cities of Assur, Nimrud, Sharrukin, Dur, and Nineveh. The second was the rise of the Babylonian Dynasty, centered in Babylon and Chaldea. The expansion of these two kingdoms created an atmosphere which not only stimulated trade, but with it, increasingly conducive conditions for warfare. The Guti Tribe were fierce nomads who succeeded in toppling the Akkadian Empire. They dominated the politics of Mesopotamia until they were defeated by the allied forces of the kings of Sumer. Hammurabi, King of Babylon from 1792 to 1750 BC, rose from relative obscurity to conquer the region and reign for 43 years. Among his many accomplishments was his famous code of laws, inscribed on the stele of the gods. Babylon became a leading centre at this time for intellectual pursuit and high accomplishment in arts and letters. This cultural centre was not to last, however, and was sacked and looted by the Hittites who were then succeeded by the Kassites. The next period was known as the “Late Bronze Age”, which lasted from about 1700 to 1100 BC. The rise of the Kassite Dynasty leads to a shift in power and an expansion of culture and learning after the Kassites conquered Babylon. The Kassites were a tribe who came from the Zagros Mountains in the north, and are thought to have originated in modern-day Iran. The collapse of the Bronze Age followed the discovery of how to mine ore and make use of iron. This was a technology which the Kassites and, earlier, the Hittites made singular use of in warfare. The period also saw the beginning of the decline of Babylonian culture due to the rise in power of the Kassites until they were defeated by the Elamites and driven out. After the Elamites gave way to the Aramaeans, the small Kingdom of Assyria began a series of successful military expansionist campaigns. The Assyrian Empire became firmly established and prospered under Tiglath-Pileser I who ruled from 1115 to 1076 BC. After him came Ashurnasirpal II, who ruled from 884 to 859 BC and consolidated the empire further. Most Mesopotamian states were either destroyed or weakened following the Bronze Age Collapse around 1250 though 1150 BC. This collapse led to a brief “dark age”. The Iron Age followed from about 1000 to 500 BC. This age saw the rise and expansion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III who ruled from 745 through 727 BC. His rule initiated the meteoric rise to power and conquest for Neo-Assyrian Empire under the rule of a succession of great Assyrian kings. These included such as Sargon II who ruled from 722 to 705 BC; Sennacherib who ruled from 705 to 681 BC; Esarhaddon who ruled from 681 to 669 BC; and Ashurbanipal who ruled from about 668 to -627 BC. During this period of time the Neo-Assyrians conquered Babylonia, Syria, Israel, and Egypt). The Empire suffered a decline as rapid as its rise due to repeated attacks on central cities by Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians. The tribes of the Hittites and the Mitanni consolidated their respective powers during this time which resulted in the rise of the Neo-Hittite and Neo-Babylonian Empires. King Nebuchadnezzar II reigned as King of Babylon from about 605 (or 604) to 562 BC. It was during hios reign that the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem in 588 BC and forced the inhabitants of Israel into the “Babylonian Exile”. Nebuchadnezzar II was also responsible for extensive construction in Babylon, creating famous buildings such as the Ishtar Gate and the Great Ziggurat, also known as the “Tower of Babel”. The fall of Babylon to King Cyrus II of Persia in 539 BC effectively ended Babylonian culture. After Cyrus II took Babylon the bulk of Mesopotamia became part of the Persian Empire and a rapid cultural decline ensued. The next period of Mesopotamian history is during what historians refer to as “Classical Antiquity” a period which ran from about 500 BC into the 7th century AD. After Cyrus II took Babylon in 539 BC, the bulk of Mesopotamia became part of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This period witnessed a rapid cultural decline in the region, most notably in the loss of the knowledge of cuneiform script. The conquest of the Persians by Alexander the Great in 331 BC brought (Greek) Hellenization of the culture and religion. However even though Alexander tried to again make Babylon a city of consequence, its days of glory were now in the past. After his death, Alexander’s general Seleucus took control of the region and founded the Seleucid Dynasty. The Seleucids ruled until 126 BC when the land was conquered by the Parthians. The Parthians were in turn dominated by the Sassanians. The Sassanians were of Persion origin. As one historian wrote, “…under Sassanian domination, Mesopotamia lay in ruins, its fields dried out or turned into a swampy morass, its once great cities made ghost towns”. By the time of the conquest by the Roman Empire (around 115-117 AD) Mesopotamia was a largely Hellenized region. It lacked any political unity, and had long forgotten the old gods and the old ways. The Romans improved the infrastructure of their colonies significantly through their introduction of better roads and plumbing and brought Roman Law to the land. Even so the region was constantly caught up in the wars various Roman emperors waged with other nations over control of the area. The entire culture of the region once known as Mesopotamia was swept away in the final conquest of the area by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century AD which resulted in the unification of law, language, religion and culture under Islam. As one historian noted, “…with the Islamic conquest of 651 AD the history of ancient Mesopotamia ends”. Today the great cities that once rose along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are largely unexcavated mounds or broken bricks on arid plains. The once fertile crescent has steadily dwindled to a wasteland due to human factors. Those factors are many, and include overuse of the land in agricultural pursuits and urban development. In large part it is also due simply to natural climate change. However the legacy of Mesopotamia endures today through many of the most basic aspects of modern life such. The sixty-second minute and the sixty-minute hour are both innovations from ancient Mesopotamia. As one historian concludes, “…because the well-being of the community depended upon close observation of natural phenomena, scientific or protoscientific activities occupied much of the priests’ time. For example, the Sumerians believed that each of the gods was represented by a number. The number sixty, sacred to the god An, was their basic unit of calculation. The minutes of an hour and the notational degrees of a circle were Sumerian concepts. The highly developed agricultural system and the refined irrigation and water-control systems that enabled Sumer to achieve surplus production also led to the growth of large cities…” Urbanization, the wheel, writing, astronomy, mathematics, wind power, irrigation, agricultural developments, and animal husbandry, all came from the land of Mesopotamia. This even includes and the narratives which would eventually be re-written as the Hebrew Scriptures and provide the basis for the Christian Old Testament. Noah Kramer, the noted historian, lists 39 `firsts’ from Mesopotamia in his book “History Begins at Sumer”. Yet as impressive as those `firsts’ are, Mesopotamian contributions to world culture do not end with them. The Mesopotamians influenced the cultures of Egypt and Greece through long-distance trade and cultural diffusion. In turn through these cultures Mesopotamia influenced the culture of Rome. Rome of course set the standard for the development and spread of western civilization. Mesopotamia in general and Sumer specifically gave the world some of its most enduring cultural aspects. Even though the cities and great palaces are long gone, that legacy continued into the modern era. In the 19th century archaeologists of varying nationalities arrived in Mesopotamia to excavate. They were seeking evidence which would corroborate the biblical tales of the Old Testament. At the time the Bible was considered the oldest book in the world and the stories found in its pages were thought to be original compositions. The archaeologists who sought physical evidence to support the biblical stories found exactly the opposite once cuneiform was deciphered. The story of the Great Flood and Noah’s Ark, the story of the Fall of Man, the concept of a Garden of Eden, even the complaints of Job had all been written centuries before the biblical texts by the Mesopotamians. Once cuneiform could be read the ancient world of Mesopotamia opened up to the modern age and transformed people’s understanding of the history of the world and themselves. The discovery of the Sumerian Civilization and the stories of the cuneiform tablets encouraged a new freedom of intellectual inquiry into all areas of knowledge. It was now understood that the biblical narratives were not original Hebrew works. The world was obviously older than the church had been claiming. There were civilizations which had risen and fallen long before that of Egypt. If the claims by authorities of church and schools had been false, perhaps others were as well. The spirit of inquiry in the late 19th century was already making inroads into challenging the paradigms of accepted thought. With the deciphering of and the discovery of Mesopotamian culture and religion this process was accelerated. In ancient times Mesopotamia impacted the world through its inventions, innovations, and religious vision. In the modern world it literally changed the way people understood the whole of history and one’s place in the continuing story of human civilization [Ancient History Encyclopedia]. Early Dynastic Mesopotamia: The Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia is dated from 2900 through 2334 BC. It is the modern-day archaeological term for the era in Mesopotamian history during which some of the most significant cultural advances were made. These included the rise of cities, the development of writing, and the establishment of governments. This era was preceded by the Uruk Period which ran from about 4100 through 2900 BC. This was when the first cities were established in the region of Sumer (southern Mesopotamia). The Uruk Period was so named for the central archeological site which defines the era, the city of Uruk. The Early Dynastic Period was followed by the Akkadian Period, which ran from 2334 to 2218 BC. The Akkadian Period was when Mesopotamia was conquered by Sargon of Akkad, who ruled from 2334 to 2279 BCE. The Akkadian Period however stretched from his conquest and then throughout the rule of his successors in the form of the Akkadian Empire. The term “Akkadian” was coined by Orientalist Henri Frankfort (1897-1954 AD) to mirror the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt, a similar period of development. It should be noted however that the advances of Mesopotamia’s Early Dynastic Period differed from Egypt’s in significant ways. Most notably in that Mesopotamia was never the cohesive ethnic or political entity Egypt was. This was true even under the rule of Sargon or later empires. Furthermore the kinds of cultural developments during the Early Dynastic Period in Mesopotamia were not as uniform as they were in Egypt. The city-states of Sumer were for much of their history each independently governed. They were generally not united under the reign of a single king as in the case of Egyptian government. So a city like Uruk or Ur might have developed some important cultural advance which was not readily shared with other city/states in Mesopotamia. The era is divided by archaeologists into three sub-periods: Dynastic I from 2900 to 2800 BC; Dynastic II from 2800 to 2600 BC; and Dynastic III from 2600-2334 BC. These are considered arbitrary divisions by some scholars and historians as there is no clear demarcation line separating one from the next. Even so, there is enough of a subtle difference that division is considered justified. Again, the Uruk Period preceded the Early Dynastic Period. Major advances during the Uruk Period were urbanization, monumental architecture, cylinder seals, writing and governmental bureaucracy. Going back even further, the earliest era in Mesopotamian history is the Ubaid Period, which ran from about 5000 to 4100 BC. Little is known about this period. little is known. The Ubaid people are so named because of the modern-day site, Tell al’Ubaid, where the major finds of the culture were located). Their origins are obscure. As they left no written records the little information archaeologists have learned about them comes from their pottery and artwork. They had already shifted from a hunter-gatherer society to an agrarian culture and had established small rural communities before the rise of Sumer. These villages developed during the Uruk Period (4100 to 2900 BC) and in time became the first cities. In addition to urbanization the major advances of this period were monumental architecture (from about 3500 to 3300 BC), the widespread utilization of cylinder seals (around 3600 BC), the development of writing (around 3600-3500 BCE), and the utilization of a written language (around 3200 BC). The utilization of a written language is exemplified in lexical lists. The lexical lists were essentially scribal dictionaries of cuneiform signs and their meaning in Sumerian, Akkadian, and Hittite. Although cylinder seals were known before 3600 BC, their use was not widespread. Last, the period was also notable for the advance of governmental bureaucracy. All of these advances became more highly developed during the Early Dynastic Period. Between the Uruk Period and the Early Dynastic Period the rivers around the region of the city of Shuruppak overflowed. This caused severe flooding from the southern plains up through the north. This event severely disrupted the society. It is considered the origin of the Great Flood story as reimagined as the gods’ wrath in the Eridu Genesis and the Atrahasis. These are the Mesopotamian works now recognized as the inspiration for the famous Biblical tale of Noah and his ark from the Bible. The exact date of the flood is sometimes debated, but most scholars set it at about 2900 BC. This would have been at the very beginning of Early Dynastic Sub-Period I. The cities which existed before the flood were Eridu, Bad-tibira, Larsa, Sippar, and Shuruppak. The cities established after the flood were Adab, Akshak, Awan, Hamazi, Kish, Lagash, Mari, Nippur, Umma, Ur, and Uruk. The Sumerian King List composed around 2100 BCE at Lagash claims the first city established by the gods was Eridu. The list claims that the first king was Alulim, who allegedly reigned for 28,800 years. The kings who follow Alulim are mostly all given equally improbable lengths of reign. The first king on the list considered historical is Etana of Kish. He is best known from “The Myth of Etana” This was a literary work belonging to the genre of Mesopotamian Naru Literature. In the story Etana flies to heaven on the back of an eagle to win what he desires most from the gods. The Sumerian King List notes that the kingship passed from Eridu to other cities. The list was composed to create an unbroken line between the present kingship and the illustrious past going all the way back to Eridu. The dates of most of these kings are doubtful and their length of reign is impossible. However the list does make it clear that the cities of Mesopotamia developed steadily from the foundation of Eridu from about 5400 BC throughout Early Dynastic I. As noted earlier these cities grew from small villages. But the core of those villages was a social organization known as a ‘household’. This is quite clearly evidenced by administrative records of the time. As one scholar explained, households were, “…social units larger than nuclear families whose members reside together. An important aspect of the household is the fact that it acted as a single unit of production and consumption: most goods needed for its survival were produced in the household itself. Households may have originated in economically autonomous kinship groups and eventually coalesced into institutions centered around a god or the king…” Households were associated either with the god of the city as represented by the city’s temple, the king, the queen, or someone of substantial wealth and power. Each household held its particular land and assets such as boats and tools in common. In the Uruk Period the priests essentially ruled but kingship had been established by about 3600 BC. By the time of Dynastic Subperiod I kingship was a firmly established institution. Each household followed the same hierarchy with the king at the top, then the queen, who sometimes had her own household. Following the Queen were the priests of the city’s god, the military, administration/bureaucracy, merchant and artisan class (skilled workers), and the unskilled workers (laborers) at the bottom. Laborers were paid through rations distributed by the administrator of the king, queen, or temple and usually consisted of barley, wool, and oil. People also fished and cultivated private gardens to supplement their income. As one scholar commented on the rations provided, “…it is clear that these rations constituted the support given to the household’s dependents, whether productive or not. The amounts were provided according to the sex and status of the worker. A male worker regularly received double the amount of grain given to a female worker. Supervisors received more than their subordinates. Specialized craftsmen received more than unskilled laborers, and so on…” Although Sumerian women had nearly equal rights, this paradigm did not extend to the lowest classes who had few rights overall. The policy and practices of the household would remain a constant as the early cities of Dynastic I developed and became the powerful city-states of Dynastic Subperiod II. The earliest phases of Dynastic II Period saw the development of these earlier advances as the individual cities expanded. Technology was improved and the household paradigm maintained a cohesive structure for the developing culture. One scholar comments, the culture was based on “…the formation of a society based on a division of labor which freed large groups of the population – such as artisans, merchants, and cultic and administrative personnel – from the production of food, as well as on an advanced technology for the production of clay vessels using the potter’s wheel, metallurgy, and the mass production of heavily used objects…” The stability provided by the household model allowed for the cultural expansion which fostered invention and innovation. Ceramics and metallurgy were produced en masse, Jewelry of precious gems became a mainstay for the upper class, as did fine cloth woven by the laborers. This model worked well for the upper class. The mass-produced items, bread, and woven cloth were also lucrative trade items. However this wealth never trickled down to the lower class laborers who produced the merchandise. As one scholar commented, “…the majority of workers provided repetitive manual labor. Women were especially used as millers and weavers. Milling at this time was a backbreaking task which required that grain be rubbed back and forth over a stone slab with a smaller hand-held stone. The women were supposed to produce set quotas on a daily basis…[later] weaving quotas could easily be as high as 2 square meters a day. Those were heavy tasks, that could lead to physical injuries, as is shown by the skeletons of women. As the wealth and power of the cities grew they attracted more and more people from rural areas. Cities afforded protection from raiders, slavers, and the elements. In addition the cities provided opportunities for work. At first the opportunity for work in the city may have seemed preferable to trying to scratch out a living as an independent farmer. Those who remained in rural communities were left with the burden of providing at least the same amount of grain to the cities. But eventually those left in rural areas had to produce increasing more than they had before in order to support the populations of the cities. As one scholar noted, “…as the city grew larger and more populous, attracting more and more people eager to escape the drudgery of subsistence farming, and perhaps also the narrow horizons of traditional communities, the demands on the remaining rural population increased. Tension and unrest seem to have been met with violent repression; pictorial scenes on seals and other objects show groups of prisoners, their hands bound behind their backs…” These scenes clearly depict fellow citizens held as slaves. These were not depictions of foreign prisoners. However nothing was done to stop this practice because the model of the household which held society together required that laborers labor. The upper-class heads of the households maintained large estates and the workers on those lands were expected to produce to the households’ expectations. This placed a tremendous burden on the workers to the extent that they seem to have viewed the mundane work in the city as preferable. Further as one historian noted, “…the climate changed so that much less water was carried by the rivers [and] may have prompted even more people to seek their survival in the city…” Each city rivaled the next in population growth. As the cities became wealthier they desired even more wealth. Around 2700 BC Enmebaragesi of Kish led the Sumerian cities in a war against Elam. This was the first war ever recorded in history. The Elamites were defeated, and the spoils of war were carried back to Sumer. This is one example of the city-states working together for a common goal but. However as one scholar pointed out, they had needed to find a way to work toward a common good long before the war. It was this need for cooperation, individually and collectively, which had given rise to the city-states to begin with. As this scholar pointed out: “…While the Sumerians set a high value on the individual and his achievement, there was one overriding factor which fostered a strong spirit of cooperation among individuals and communities alike: the complete dependence of Sumer on irrigation for its well-being – indeed, for its very existence. Irrigation is a complicated process requiring communal effort and organization. Canals had to be dug and kept in constant repair. The water had to be divided equitably among all concerned. To ensure this, a power stronger than the individual landowner or even the single community was mandatory: hence, the growth of governmental institutions and the rise of the Sumerian state…” When they had to the city-states cooperated and were able to accomplish their goals. They certainly cooperated when survival necessitated. This would include for instance the negotiation of trade agreements. However otherwise the cities pursued their own self-interest, often to the detriment of others. The Early Dynastic III Subperiod witnessed the rise of Kish in the north and Uruk in the south as the two dominant political powers. This is the era in which the kings are best historically/archaeologically attested. Nonetheless the dynasties of some cities, such as Lagash, are not included in the Sumerian King List. And the dates given by that list for other kings often do not correspond to dates in other documents or the archaeological record. The great kings of Uruk are all listed toward the beginning of the Early Dynastic III Period around 2600 BC. The include for example Meshkianggasher, Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, Dumuzi, and the great hero-king Gilgamesh. In fact Meshkianggasher was reputed to have first founded Uruk). Nonetheless they are also associated with earlier rulers such as Enmebaragesi as well as later kings like Eannatum, who ruled somewhere around 2500 to 2400 BC. It’s impossible to reconcile these differences in chronology. It is known that the first king of the First Dynasty of Lagash, Ur-Nanshe, established Lagash as a strong political presence. His son Eannatum would expand on his policies and conquer all of Sumer. Eannatum called upon Enlil the patron god of Lagash and Ninurta, the god of war. He led his armies against the other city-states and conquered all of Sumer, including Uruk and Kish. He then moved against the Elamites and took large portions of their territory. By the time his campaigns were over he had created the first empire in Mesopotamia. It was largely comprised of the city-states of his former-fellow-monarchs. His empire was challenged shortly after his death however, and his successors could not maintain it. One of the most interesting and mysterious of the monarchs who are said to have freed their cities from the empire of Lagash is the only female ruler on the Sumerian King List. Kubaba founded the Third Dynasty of Kish. The Sumerian King List describes her briefly as “the woman tavern-keeper who made firm the foundations of Kish”. Who Kubaba was, where she came from, and how she came to power is unknown. Her son Puzur-Suen and grandson Ur-Zababa were both successful kings. Kubaba herself was deified after her death. In fact her cult would inform the later goddess of the Hurrians, Hepat. Also most famously the Phrygian mother goddess Matar Kubileya. Matar Kubileya (“Mother Cybele”) was eventually worshipped by the Ionian Greeks of Anatolia/Cilicia as Cybele. Whatever the royal accomplishments of her grandson Ur-Zababa were they were eclipsed by the legends which came to define the reign of the man who enters history as his cupbearer. Sargon of Akkad’s ‘biography’ is considered by historians to be highly mythologized. Nonetheless it is claimed that he was born in the north the illegitimate son of a “changeling”, who gave birth to him in secret. After birth he was set afloat on the river in a basket of reeds. The basket brought him to the city of Kish where he was found by the royal gardener Akki. Sargon grew up in the palace and rose to the prestigious position of cupbearer to King Ur-Zababa who favored him until the king had a disturbing dream suggesting Sargon would depose him. At about this same time the king of the city-state of Umma, Lugalzagesi, embarked on a campaign of conquest to reunite Sumer under a single ruler (himself) just as Eannatum had earlier. Ur-Zababa sent Sargon as an emissary to Lugalzagesi. Lugalzagesi who was on the march toward Kish. Sargon was possibly to convey an offer of terms from Ur-Zababa to Lugalzagesi. But according to legend, unbeknownst to Sargon the message from Ur-Zababa to Lugalzagesi a request to kill Sargon. Given the dream he had, Ur-Zababa was anxious to rid himself of Sargon. However Sargon so impressed Lugalzagesi that the king ignored the request and asked Sargon to join him. They marched on Kish together and took it. Ur-Zababa fled the city and nothing more is known of him. Shortly after this Sargon turned on Lugalzagesi, his benefactor and defeated him. Lugalzagesiwas dragged in chains with a rope around his neck to the city of Nippur. There he was publicly humiliated by being marched through the sacred gate of the god Enlil. Enlil was the god in whom Lugalzagesi had trusted for victory. Lugalzagesi was then presumably executed. Sargon then proclaimed himself king and went on to conquer all of Mesopotamia. In so doing Sargon founded the Akkadian Empire, the first multi-national political entity in history. The Akkadian Empire brings the Early Dynastic Period to a close. Contrary to Sargon’s later boasts and the legends that grew up around him, he could not have established his empire without the foundation laid by his predecessors. One of Sargon’s greatest strengths was learning from the mistakes of the earlier conquerors. He also excelled at placing people he could trust in positions of authority throughout his empire. This included his daughter Enheduanna who was high priestess of the temple of Inanna at the city of Ur. She was also the first author in history known by name. Another of Sargon’s greatest strengths was routinely sending trusted officials throughout his realm to maintain order. Sargon’s examples would be followed both by the later Assyrian and Roman Empires in terms of a cohesive form of government. The model of that government however was established by the earlier Sumerian kings of the Early Dynastic Period. These monarchs established a society which in spite of its weaknesses and rivalries, allowed for the development of many of the most fundamental aspects of civilization. Even until today these fundaments of civilization are still so often taken for granted [Ancient History Encyclopedia]. Rise of the Cities: Once upon a time, in the land known as Sumer, the people built a temple to their god . Their god had conquered the forces of chaos and brought order to the world. They built this temple at a place called Eridu. Eridu was one of the most southerly sites of Sumer. It was at the very edge of the alluvial river plain and close to the marshes. This was within the transitional zone between sea and land, with its shifting watercourses, islands and deep reed thickets”. This marshy area, hemmed about by hard land and sand dunes, represented to the people the life-giving force of the god. The area provided a physical manifestation of the order their god had created from chaos. The sweet waters of life were celebrated at Eridu as they were associated with what the Sumerians called the abzu. The abzu was the primordial source of all existence. It was th realm in which the gods lived and from which they emerged. The god Enki came forth from the abzu and dwelt at Eridu. The Sumerian King-list states, “…after kingship had descended from heaven, kingship was in Eridu…” This cultural center became the first city to the Sumerians. As one historian put it, “…thus the Mesopotamian Eden is not a garden but a city, formed from a piece of dry land surrounded by the waters. The first building is a temple…This is how Mesopotamian tradition presented the evolution and function of cities, and Eridu provides the mythical paradigm. Contrary to the biblical Eden, from which man was banished forever after the Fall, Eridu remained a real place, imbued with sacredness but always accessible…” Eridu was not only the first city in the world to the Sumerians, but the beginning of civilization. Every other city ever raised, they believed, had its origin in the sand and waters which surrounded Eridu. Modern scholars disagree on why the first cities in the world rose in the region of Mesopotamia instead of elsewhere. Theories range from the ancient alien hypothesis to social, to the advent of agriculturalism, to natural upheavals that forced people to band together in urban centers. There are also those who theorize the impetus may have been created by environmental issues, and there are speculative theories of forced migration of rural communities to cities. None of these theories are universally accepted while the ancient alien hypothesis is rejected by virtually all scholars and historians. What is agreed upon however is that the moment the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia decided to engage in the process of urbanization, they changed the way humans would live forever. As summarized by one historian, “…this was a revolutionary moment in human history. The [Sumerians] were consciously aiming at nothing less than changing the world. They were the very first to adopt the principle that has driven progress and advancement throughout history, and still motivates most of us in the modern times: the conviction that it is humanity’s right, its mission and its destiny, to transform and improve on nature and become her master…” This “principle” referred to is perhaps no more than the natural inclination of human beings to gather together for safety from the elements. Or it could have its roots in religion and communal religious practices. These provide an assurance that there is order and meaning behind the seemingly random events of life. Alternatively urbanization count be a natural corollary to the agriculturalism and pastoralism which marked the gradual transition away from the haunter-gatherer culture of the Stone Age. One historian suggests that, “…the habit of resorting to caves for the collective performance of magical ceremonies seems to date back to an earlier period, and whole communities, living in caves and hollowed-out walls of rock, have survived in widely scattered areas down to the present. The outline of the city as both an outward form and an inward pattern of life might be found in such ancient assemblages…” Whatever it was that first gave rise to the development of the cities in Mesopotamia, the world would never be the same. From before 4,000 BC and over the next ten to fifteen centuries, the people of Eridu and their neighbors laid the foundations for almost everything that we know as civilization. It has been called the Urban Revolution, though the invention of cities was actually the least significant constituent. With the city came the centralized state, the hierarchy of social classes, the division of labor, organized religion, monumental building, civil engineering, writing, literature, sculpture, art, music, education, mathematics and law. In addition it brought a vast array of new inventions and discoveries. These included items as basic as wheeled vehicles, sailing boats, potter’s kilns, metallurgy and the creation of synthetic materials. On top of all that was the huge collection of notions and ideas so fundamental to our way of perceiving the world. This would include the conceptually abstract use of numbers, or weight, independent of actual items counted or weighed. We have long forgotten that the use of numbers or weights independent of an actual objects being counted or weighed is an abstract concept that had to be discovered or invented. Southern Mesopotamia was the place where all that was first achieved. As first manifested in the construction of Eridu the concept of the city did not remain bound by that single area for long. Urbanization spread across the region of Sumer rapidly. The process began about 4500 BC with the rise of the city of Uruk. Uruk is now considered the world’s first city. It may well be that Eridu is in fact the world’s first city as the Sumerian myths maintain. However Eridu was founded around 5400 BC. This was long before the advent of writing which occurred about 3000 BC. By that time Uruk was long established and left archaeologists artifacts which in the present day attest to its size and population. These artifacts substantiate the claim that Uruk is the world’s first city. The site of Eridu on the other hand has yielded little to suggest it was ever any more than a sacred center. Perhaps it could be described as a large village or town by modern-day standards of scholarship. Sumerian mythology supports the contention that Uruk superseded Eridu in the poem “Inanna and the God of Wisdom”. In this work the home of the goddess Inanna is described as being in Uruk. The goddess goes to Eridu to visit her father Enki. As one historian explains, “…Mesopotamians recognized Enki as the god who brings civilization to humankind. It is he who gives rulers their intelligence and knowledge. He `opens the doors of understanding’…he is not the ruler of the universe but the gods’ wise counselor and elder brother…Most importantly, Enki was the custodian of the meh, which the great Assyriologist Samuel Noah Kramer explained as the `fundamental, unalterable, comprehensive assortment of powers and duties, norms and standards, rules and regulations, relating to civilized life’.” At the beginning of the poem, Inanna says, “I shall direct my steps to Enki, to the Apsu, to Eridu, and I myself shall speak coaxingly to him, in the Apsu, in Eridu. I shall utter a plea to Lord Enki” indicating clearly that she wants something from her father. Enki seems to be aware of her coming and instructs his servant to make her welcome, to “pour beer for her, in front of the Lion gate, make her feel as if she is in her girl-friend’s house, make her welcome as a colleague.” Inanna sits down to drink beer with her father and, as they become progressively more drunk together, Enki offers his daughter one meh after another until she has over a hundred. Enki then seems to pass out from the drinking and Inanna, with the meh, hurries from Eridu back toward Uruk. When Enki wakes and finds he has lost his meh, he sends his servant Isimud to get them back. The rest of the poem relates Isimud’s futile attempts to keep Inanna from reaching Uruk with the meh. She
Frequently Asked Questions About Time Life Great Ages Man Cradle Civilization Babylon Mesopotamia Assyria Persia in My Website
ebeergaspvtltd.com is the best online shopping platform where you can buy Time Life Great Ages Man Cradle Civilization Babylon Mesopotamia Assyria Persia from renowned brand(s). ebeergaspvtltd.com delivers the most unique and largest selection of products from across the world especially from the US, UK and India at best prices and the fastest delivery time.
What are the best-selling Time Life Great Ages Man Cradle Civilization Babylon Mesopotamia Assyria Persia on ebeergaspvtltd.com?
ebeergaspvtltd.com helps you to shop online and delivers Bvlgari to your doorstep. The best-selling Bvlgari on ebeergaspvtltd.com are: Bvlgari Men’s Card Case 280299 Bulgari Bulgari Man Bvlgari Omnia Coral Eau de Parfum for Women – Earthy Brown -Size 100 BVLGARI Le Gemme 6186 18K Rose Gold Plated Grau Round Jewel Sunglasses BV6186K Bvlgari sunglasses 6181 rhinestone mens Used STOC-0 Bvlgari – Splendida Tubereuse Mystique Eau De Parfum Spray 30ml/1oz JASMIN NOIR by Bvlgari 25 ml/ 0.84 oz Eau de Parfum Spray NIB RARE BVLGARI Fold Wallet Orange USED T148-1 Bvlgari BLV Linge De Bain II Bath & Shower Gel Travel Size 1.0fl. oz – NIB Bvlgari | Allegra | Dolce Estasi | 100mL | 3.4 FL. OZ. | Eau de Parfum | Tester BVLGARI Assioma AA44S Date Navy Dial Automatic Men’s Watch_797385 Bvlgari Pour Homme 3.4oz Men’s Eau de Toilette Bvlgari Baciami 100ml 3.4oz Brand New Authentic BVLGARI BULGARI Serpenti Forever Chain Crossbody Clutch BNIB in Sea Star Coral VINTAGE BULGARI FOR WOMEN EDT 50ML 1.7FL Bvlgari Sunglasses BV8123G 5191T5 Havana, Size 57-16-135 Bvlgari Eyeglasses Frames 1105 2052 Matte Gold Black Square WireRim 55-20-145 Bvlgari Eyeglasses Red/Wine 4062-B Swarovski Crystal In Original Box Bvlgari Man Wood Essence Men 3.4 oz 100 ml Eau De Parfum Spray Same As Photo BVLGARI Rosenthal Twist Clutch BVLGARI Gold Plated Rollerball Pen (used) FREE SHIPPING WORLDWIDE 3 BVLGARI MAN RAIN ESSENCE EDP Terrae Essence Wood Essence Perfume Sampler BVLGARI Bulgari Bulgari BB39S Date Silver Dial Automatic Men’s Watch Q#132241 Bvlgari Eau Parfumee Au The Rouge By Bvlgari cologne For Women 1.7 fl oz 50ml BVLGARI small gold greeting card with envelope 4″ x 4″-pack of 10 BVLGARI – womens eyeglasses – BV4107B 5361 – Violet Gradient – Pale Gold BVLGARI BVL MAN Men Cologne Splash Mini Eau de Tolette .17 Oz EDT 5 mL NEW NWOB Bvlgari Jasmin Noir Eau de Parfum 5ml & Body Lotion 30 ml BVLGARI SPLENDIDA PATCHOULI TENTATION EAU DE PARFUM 0.5OZ-15ML SPRAY NEW IN BOX NEW Bvlgari 6141 Sunglasses 20142Y Gold 100% AUTHENTIC Bvlgari Women’s Card Case 30420 Bulgari Bulgari 2 BVLGARI EXTREME Pour Homme Eau De Toilette 3.4fl.oz/100ml (HARD TO GET) BVLGARI Diagono Magnesium DG41SMC Brown Dial Automatic Men’s Watch_790037 BVLGARI Octo Roma OCP41SG PG/SS #784 BVLGARI B.Zero1 BZ22S Quartz Watch Wristwatch Free Shipping [Used] Bvlgari collection 3 samples New in box 0.05 fl oz. x 3 great little sample set! Bvlgari MAN Travel Spray in edt 0.34 oz/10 ml New in Box !! BVLGARI MAN IN BLACK EDP 3.4 OZ / 100 ML (NEW IN A BOX) SEALED BVLGARI MAN AFTER SHAVE LOTION 3.4 OZ / 100 ML NEW & SEALED Authentic Bvlgari Black Leather Long Slim Bifold Clutch Wallet Bvlgari Eau Parfumée Au thé Blanc Eau de Cologne Spray Perfume 2.5 fl oz / 75 mL AQUA POUR HOMME by Bvlgari Eau De Toilette Spray 3.3 oz for Men BVLGARI Le chair LUP28SG K18PG2 tone Silver Dial Quartz Ladies Watch_803290 Bvlgari Man Wood Neroli Men’s Eau de Parfum 3.4 oz (AUTHENTIC) TRUSTED SELLER BVLGARI Signed STRAP w/ BVLGARI BOX ( For Phone, Keychain ) / COLLECTIBLE Bvlgari Pour Femme Women Eau Fraiche Eau de Toilette Spray 1.7 oz 50ml GENUINE BVLGARI 37 JEWEL AUTOMATIC CHRONOGRAPH MOVEMENT DIAL AND HANDS Bvlgari Le Gemme Orom Eau De Parfum Spray 3.4 oz 100 ml New In Box Authentic BVLGARI Diagono Professional DP42SGMT GMT gray Dial Automatic Men’s Watch_840532 BVLGARI MAN TERRAE ESSENCE for Men 0.5 oz 15 ml Eau de Parfum Spray NEW IN BOX Bvlgari Octo 102103 BGO41BSLDCH Chronograph Automatic Men’s Watch +Free Post BVLGARI SPLENDIDA IRIS D’OR 1.7 oz 50 ML EAU DE PARFUM SPRAY NEW IN DAMAGED BOX Rose Essentielle by BVLGARI 0.34 oz Eau de Parfum Refillable Spray NO CAP & BOX Bvlgari for Men Eau de Toilette Spray 3.4 Ounce 85-90% FULL. Bvlgari BB38WSLDCH/N White Dial Chronograph Automatic Men’s Watch +Free Post BVLGARI Grey BV 3032 Eyeglasses (52•19) Bulgari Women’s 54 mm Striped Purple Sunglasses BV8257-54058H-54 Bvlgari Au the Blanc (White Tea) Pleated Soap 50g – Set of 6 Splendida Rose Rose EDP Spray by Bvlgari ~ 3.4 fl oz ~ 100 ml Bvlgari Bag Bulgari Cocktail Bag, Clutch Peach Satin BVLGARI OMNIA CRYSTALLINE Edt Eau de Toilette Mini . 17 oz Splash SEALED +GIFT🎁 AQVA ATLANTIQUE Pour Homme by Bvlgari 100 ml/ 3.4 oz After Shave Balm NIB Bvlgari au the vert (green tea) shampoo 2.5oz Set of 6 Bvlgari – Splendida Tubereuse Mystique Eau De Parfum Spray 30ml/1oz Rose Goldea Blossom Delight by Bvlgari EDT 2.5 oz Women Tester Box BVLGARI Ladies Watch Lucea Date AT SS LU33S Polished w/ boxed warranty card SPLENDIDA PATCHOULI TENTATION by BVLGARI 0.05 oz, 1.5 ml EDP Spray Bvlgari Rose Essentielle 1.7oz Women’s Eau de Parfum Auth BVLGARI Bvlgari Bvlgari BB40CL L20300 Black Men’s Wrist Watch Bvlgari Limited Edition Timepiece Bvlgari Pour Homme By Bvlgari men’s mini 0.12 oz/4ML splash Eau De Toilette NIB Ladies Bvlgari B.zero1 35mm 18K Rose Gold Steel Flower Dial Wrist Watch 101901 Bvlgari Man In Black TSTER EDP 3.4 oz / 100 ml For Men TSTER Bvlgari Diagono Scuba SD38SGMT Watch GMT date black Dial Automatic EAU PARFUMEE AU THE Bleu by Bvlgari 75 ml/2.5 oz Eau de Cologne Spray (T) BVLGARI Tie Silk PNK Men Bvlgari Black fragrance, innovative, bold, unexpected, unisex, Postcard Omnia Crysralline L’EAU DE PARFUM by Bvlgari Large Spray in EAU DE PARFUM NIB ! BVLGARI BLV by Bvlgari Eau De Toilette Spray 3.3/ 3.4 oz Bvlgari Omnia Pink Sapphire Eau De Toilette 2.2 Fl. Oz / 65 ml Bvlgari Man In Black by Bvlgari for Men 2.0 oz EDP Spray Brand New Vintage Empty Collectible Bottle BULGARI EAU FRAICHE EDT 1.7 Fl. Oz. 50 Ml. Bvlgari Le Gemme Guan Eau De Parfum 1.5ML/0.05fl.oz Sample Bvlgari Genuine 2 Link Solo Tempo ST35 Men’s Watch 18mm Excellent Condition BVLGARI POUR HOMME EDT MINI SPLASH .17 OZ **** READ **** *FREE SHIPPING* Bvlgari Man + Man in Black Bundle! *BLOW OUT SALE* Original Bvlgari Au The Rouge RARE Eau De Cologne Parfumee 5ml / 0.17 OZ. Bulgari AQUA MARINE Men, Bvlgari Aqva Homme, After Shave Emulsion, 2.5 oz (75ml) Bvlgari 4 Piece Travel Miniature Collection for Men TYGER wau de perfum (Le Gemme Tygar Eau de Parfum) 55ML Bvlgari Aqva 2 Pieces Set 3.4 oz & 0.5 oz Eau De Toilette Spray Men Bvlgari Ladies Rose Goldea Blossom Delight EDT Spray 1.7 oz Fragrances Bulgari Bvlgari Bvlgari BB33PLAUTO Pt950 Platinum Solid watch unisex TO164040 BVLGARI Bvlgari Bvlgari BB26SSD Date Quartz Wristwatch Free Shipping [Used] NEW Emirates 1st First Class Men Amenity Kit – Bvlgari Le Gemme GYAN Bvlgari Le Gemme TYGAR Eau de Parfum Sample Spray 1.5 ml/ 0.05 fl oz Bvlgari Allegra Magnifying Myrrh Essence Eau de Parfum Sample – 1.5ml/0.05oz BVLGARI 8112 B MULTICOLOR FRAME JEWELED CRYSTALS 5234/11 SUNGLASSES ITALY Bvlgari Man Rain Essence Eau de Parfum EDP Vial Spray .05oz / 1.5ml Lot 15 Pcs NEW Bvlgari 4190B Eyeglasses 5426 Violet 100% AUTHENTIC NEW Bvlgari 8232 Sunglasses 54708G Pink 100% AUTHENTIC Mens Pullover Fleece Hoodie